Philosophical Empiricism Knowledge Through the Senses

Empiricism is the philosophical stance according to which the senses are the ultimate source of human knowledge. It stands in contrast to  rationalism, according to which reason is the ultimate source of knowledge.  In Western philosophy, empiricism boasts a long and distinguished list of followers; it became particularly popular during the 1600s and 1700s. Some of the most important  British empiricists  of that time included  John Locke and David Hume. Empiricists Maintain That Experience Leads to Understanding Empiricists claim that all ideas that a mind can entertain have been formed through some experience or – to use a slightly more technical term – through some impression. Here is how David Hume expressed this creed: it must be some one impression that gives rise to every real idea (A Treatise of Human Nature, Book I, Section IV, Ch. vi). Indeed – Hume continues in Book II – all our ideas or more feeble perceptions are copies of our impressions or more lively ones.Empiricists support their philosophy by describing situations in which a person’s lack of experience precludes her from full understanding. Consider pineapples, a favorite example among early modern writers. How can you explain the flavor of a pineapple to someone who has never tasted one? Here is what John Locke says about pineapples in his Essay:If you doubt this, see whether you can, by words, give anyone who has never tasted pineapple an idea of the taste of that fruit. He may approach a grasp of it by being told of its resemblance to other tastes of which he already has the ideas in his memory, imprinted there by things he has taken into his mouth; but this isn’t giving him that idea by a definition, but merely raising up in him other simple ideas that will still be very different from the true taste of pineapple. (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Book III, Chapter IV)There are of course countless cases analogous to the one cited by Locke. They are typically exemplified by claims such as: You can’t understand what it feels like †¦ Thus, if you never gave birth, you don’t know what it feels like; if you never dined at the famous Spanish restaurant El Bulli, you don’t know what it was like; and so on. Limits of Empiricism There are many limits to empiricism and many objections to the idea that experience can make it possible for us to adequately understand the full breadth of human experience. One such objection concerns the process of abstraction through which ideas are supposed to be formed from impressions. For instance, consider the idea of a triangle. Presumably, an average person will have seen plenty of triangles, of all sorts of types, sizes, colors, materials †¦ But until we have an idea of a triangle in our minds, how do we recognize that a three-sided figure is, in fact, a triangle?Empiricists will typically reply that the process of abstraction embeds a loss of information: impressions are vivid, while ideas are faint memories of reflections. If we were to consider each impression on its own, we would see that no two of them are alike; but when we remember  multiple impressions of triangles, we will understand that they are all three-sided objects.While it may be possible to empirically grasp a concrete idea like triangle or house, however, abstract concepts are much more complex. One example of such an abstract concept is the idea of love: is it specific to positional qualities such as gender, sex, age, upbringing, or social status, or is there really one abstract idea of love?   Another abstract concept that is difficult to describe from the empirical perspective is the idea of the self.  Which sort of impression could ever teach us such an idea? For Descartes, indeed, the self is an innate idea, one that is found within a person independently of any specific experience: rather, the very possibility of having an impression depends on a subject’s possessing an idea of the self. Analogously, Kant centered his philosophy on the idea of the self, which is a priori according to the terminology he introduced. So, what is the empiricist account of the self? Probably the most fascinating and effective reply comes, once again, from Hume. Here is what he wrote about the self in the Treatise (Book I, Section IV, Ch. vi):For my part, when I enter most intimately into what I call myself, I always stumble on some particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or pleasure. I never can catch myself at any time without a perception, and never can observe any thing but the perception. When my perceptions are removed for any time, as by sound sleep, so long am I insensible of myself, and may truly be said not to exist. And were all my perceptions removed by death, and could I neither think, nor feel, nor see, nor love, nor hate, after the dissolution of my body, I should be entirely annihilated, nor do I conceive what is further requisite to make me a perfect nonentity. If any one, upon serious and unprejudiced reflection, thinks he has a different notion of himself, I must confess I can reason no longer with him. All I can allow him is, that he may be in the right as well as I, and that we are essentially different in this particular. He may, perhaps, perceive something simple and continued, which he calls himself; though I am certain there is no such principle in me. Whether Hume was right or not is beyond the point. What matters is that the empiricist account of the self is, typically, one that tries to do away with the unity of the self. In other words, the idea  that there is ​one thing that survives throughout our whole life is an illusion.

Family History And Problem From California Family And...

Family History and Problem A social worker from California Family and Children Services received a referral by Judge Cummins concerning a custody battle over Eloise Anderson, age 7. The presenting problem is that Rowena Jeffers and her brother Jeremiah are concerned that Eloise is not receiving proper parental guidance and support living with her paternal grandfather, Elliot Anderson. The Jeffers have called a court hearing and Judge Cummins has ordered a psychological evaluation for Eloise. Both families love Eloise and want what is best for her, but racial differences are what keeps this battle going (Costner Binder, 2014). According to Rowena Jeffers, Elliot Anderson’s wife Carol died in a car accident, leaving him to raise his granddaughter on his own. Carol was the primary caregiver for Eloise, creating daily routines for Eloise. Her death has left Mr. Anderson to continue these routines and become the primary caregiver for his granddaughter. Judge Cummins referred the s ocial worker to the Anderson family because Mr. Anderson informed the judge that Eloise’s behavior had changed since the psychological evaluations (Costner Binder, 2014). The social worker made a home visit to speak with Elliot and his granddaughter and she informed Mr. Anderson she was there to visit with Eloise concerning the change in behavior after Eloise started undergoing a psychological evaluation. Mr. Anderson was reluctant but allowed the worker in because he was worriedShow MoreRelatedEssay about Safe Surrendered Baby Law1319 Words   |  6 Pagesquestions asked (California Department of Social Services, 2007). A baby can be safely surrendered 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. An identity bracelet is given to the baby so that if the parents decide to keep the baby, they have up to 14 days to change their mind (Santa Clara Community, 2011) Safe surrender sites display a blue and white sign and are typically at fire stations and hospitals. 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Monsters Are Real Donnie Darko free essay sample

DarkoIn storytelling, monsters are used to express the fears and worries of humans. They allow us to discover our values by questioning our morals through imagination and illusion. In both Donnie Darko and Pan’s Labyrinth illustrating real-life monsters Captain Videl and Jim Cunningham enhances our fear of monsters. These villains symbolize the vulnerability we feel as we identify ourselves with the victims of the attack. We can relate each example of monsters to an evolution of our fears throughout our lives. The fear we have of monsters stems from the idea that our moral imaginations shape the danger inside these beastly beings. As children, our vulnerability came from our fears of losing security. The monsters hiding under our beds taunted us with the threat that we’d be eaten and would never see our parents or that our most valued possession would be taken from us. This juvenile fear is illustrated in Pan’s Labyrinth through Captain Videl. We will write a custom essay sample on Monsters Are Real Donnie Darko or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He encompasses the threats we felt as children by being controlling and dominating, as he manipulates Pan and she loses her innocence. As we mature and the limits of our moral boundaries widen, the term â€Å"monster† evolves into something more complex. As we enter into adolescence, and later into adulthood, our fears become something less to do with security and more to do with a threat to our happiness. Our moral imagination evokes fears of defeat and failure, a fear that we formulate in ourselves. As we grow older, we also fear the world and others that we cannot control. In Donnie Darko, Jim Cunningham, embodies our fears of a predator. He is the real-life monster we fear everyday with his complex, dark and twisted secrets. Ultimately, both Donnie Darko and Pan’s Labyrinth effectively embody our illusions of fear from childhood to adulthood.

Philosophy Of Jeremy Bentham Essays - Ethics, Philosophy

Philosophy of Jeremy Bentham Over time, the actions of mankind have been the victim of two vague labels, right and wrong. The criteria for these labels are not clearly defined, but they still seem to be the standard by which the actions of man are judged. There are some people that abide by a deontological view when it comes to judging the nature of actions; the deontological view holds that it is a person's intention that makes an action right or wrong. On the other hand there is the teleological view which holds that it is the result of an action is what makes that act right or wrong. In this essay I will be dealing with utilitarianism, a philosophical principle that holds a teleological view when it comes the nature of actions. To solely discuss utilitarianism is much too broad of topic and must be broken down, so I will discuss specifically quantitative utilitarianism as presented by Jeremy Bentham. In this essay I will present the argument of Bentham supporting his respective form of utilitarianism and I wi ll give my critique of this argument along the way. Before the main discussion of the Bentham's utilitarianism gets underway, lets first establish what utilitarianism is. As stated in the introduction, utilitarianism is a teleological philosophy that is primarily concerned with the results of an action when determining the nature of that act. Utilitarianism operates primarily under the greater happiness principal, in other words, utilitarians believe that one should only act in such a way that the results of that act should produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest for the greatest number of people. It is due to this view that utilitarianism is often criticized for being too hedonistic because it places the moral value of an act only on how much that act effects happiness. The teleological nature of utilitarianism also can serve as a problem because it pays no attention to the intention an action and can make acts of an immoral nature justifiably right. I will use the example that a professor of mine used in which a ma n tries to snatch an old lady's purse and in his struggle to do so he pulls her out of the way of a speeding vehicle thus saving her life. This act, although it started with mischievous intent, ended with a life being saved and surely produced the greatest amount of happiness for the old lady. In the utilitarian eye this act is morally acceptable and right due to the fact that happiness was produced. Jeremy Bentham was a utilitarian philosopher with his own version of this particular of this teleological view called "Quantitative Utilitarianism". Bentham's utilitarianism argument starts by giving his principle of utility which judges all actions based on its tendency to promote or diminish happiness of whoever is involved, be it a community or an individual. According to Bentham, an action is right if, it increases happiness and decreases suffering and is wrong it does not. Also included in his view of utilitarianism is a way to calculate the general tendency of any act and its affect on a community. The calculation is based on the seven circumstances of the act, which are: its intensity, its duration, its certainty or uncertainty, its propinquity or remoteness, its fecundity (tendency to be followed by sensations of like kind), its purity (tendency not to be followed by sensations of unlike kind), and its extent (number of people affected). With these circumstances in order, one can start to calculate the nature of the act and according to Bentham after the completion of the process, one can make an accurate assessment of the true nature of the act. Here is where my critique of Bentham's "Quantitative Utilitarianism" comes into the picture. I will present Bentham's process in his own words and then offer my observation as to where he went wrong. The community is a fictitious body composed of the individual persons who are considered as constituting as it were members. The interest of the community then is, what?-the sum of the interests of the several members who compose it?..To take an exact account then of the general tendency of any act,

A detailed description of the pharmacological treatments used in Alzheimer’s disease The WritePass Journal

A detailed description of the pharmacological treatments used in Alzheimer’s disease Introduction A detailed description of the pharmacological treatments used in Alzheimer’s disease IntroductionReferencesRelated Introduction The nervous system is involved in the transmission of signals for communication and for coordination of body systems. The principle cell of the nervous system is a neuron, the neuron components are a cell body, dendrites, axon, synaptic terminals and myelin sheath (not always). The cell body component of the neuron integrates signals and coordinates metabolic activities. Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron that act to conduct the electrochemical stimulation. The axon in the neuron conducts the signal and the synaptic terminals transmit the signals. The myelin sheath is the coating on some neurons that that acts as an insulator to speed the conduction of nerve impulses, usually around only the axon of a neuron. The transmission of a nerve impulse along a neuron from one end to the other occurs as a result of chemical changes across the membrane of the neuron. The membrane of an unstimulated neuron is polarized- that is, there is a difference in electrical charge between the outside and inside of the membrane. The inside is negative with respect to the outside. Such polarization is established by maintaining an excess of sodium ions (Na+) on the outside and an excess of potassium ions (K+) on the inside. Na+/K+ pumps in the membrane actively restore the ions to the appropriate side. Other ions, such as large, negatively charged proteins and nucleic acids, reside within the cell. It is these large, negatively charged ions that contribute to the overall negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane as compared to the outside. In addition to crossing the membrane through leakage channels, ions may also cross through gated channels. Gated channels open in response to neurotransmitters, changes in membrane potential, or other stimuli. The following events characterize the transmission of a nerve impulse. Resting potential: The resting potential describes the unstimulated, polarized state of a neuron. Graded potential: A graded potential is a change in the resting potential. A graded potential occurs when the stimulus causes Na+ or K+ gated channels to open. Na+ channels open, positive sodium ions enter, and the membrane depolarizes (becomes more positive). If the stimulus opens K+ channels, then positive potassium ions exit across the membrane and the membrane hyperpolarizes (becomes more negative). Action potential: An action potential is capable of traveling long distances. If a depolarizing graded potential is sufficiently large, Na+ channels in the trigger zone open. In response, Na+ on the outside of the membrane becomes depolarized (as in a graded potential). Repolarization: In response to the inflow of Na+, K+ channels open, this time allowing K+ on the inside to rush out of the cell. The movement of K+ out of the cell causes repolarization by restoring the original membrane polarization. Soon after the K+ gates open, the Na+ gates close. Hyperpolarization: This is when K+ channels closes and more K+ has moved out of the cell. As a result, the membrane becomes hyperpolarized. Refractory period: The membrane is polarized, but the Na+ and K+ are on the wrong sides of the membrane. During this refractory period, the axon will not respond to a new stimulus. To re-establish the original distribution of these ions, the Na+ and K+ are returned to their resting potential location by Na+/K+ pumps in the cell membrane. Once these ions are returned to their resting potential the neuron is ready for another stimulus. Transmission of Nerve Impulses between Neurons: The nerve impulse (action potential) travels down the presynaptic axon towards the synapse, where it activates voltage-gated calcium channels leading to calcium influx, which triggers the simultaneous release of neurotransmitter molecules from many synaptic vesicles by fusing the membranes of the vesicles to that of the nerve terminal. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft, bind briefly to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron to activate them, causing physiological responses that may be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the receptor. The central nervous system (CNS) is that part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is one of the two major divisions of the nervous system. The other is the peripheral nervous system (PNS) which is outside the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the central nervous system (CNS) to sensory organs (such as the eye and ear), other organs of the body, muscles, blood vessels and glands. The hippocampus is one of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage; memory problems and disorientation appear among the first symptoms. Damage to the hippocampus can also result from oxygen starvation (hypoxia), encephalitis, or medial temporal lobe epilepsy. People with extensive, bilateral hippocampal damage may experience anterograde amnesia- the inability to form or retain new memories. Cholinesterase is a family of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into choline and acetic acid, a reaction necessary to allow a cholinergic neuron to return to its resting state after activation. Cholinesterase inhibitors work by increasing levels of acetylcholine, a chemical messenger involved in memory, judgment and other thought processes. Certain brain cells release acetylcholine, which helps deliver messages to other cells. After a message reaches the receiving cell, various other chemicals, including an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, break acetylcholine down so it can be recycled. Alzheimers disease (AD) is a slowly progressive disease of the brain that is characterized by impairment of memory and eventually by disturbances in reasoning, planning, language, and perception. Alzheimers disease is a result from an increase in the production of beta-amyloid protein in the brain that leads to nerve cell death. The only way to know for certain that someone has AD is to examine a sample of their brain tissue after death. The following changes are more common in the brain tissue of people with AD: Neurofibrillary tangles which are twisted fragments of protein within nerve cells that clog up the cell. Another change which is common in brain tissue of a patient with AD is neuritic plaques (containing beta-amyloid protein) mentioned above. This results in abnormal clusters of dead and dying nerve cells, other brain cells, and aberrant protein deposits. When nerve cells are destroyed, there is a decrease in the chemicals/electrical signal that helps nerve cells send messa ges to one another, which are called neurotransmitters. As a result, areas of the brain that normally work together become disconnected. The probability of having Alzheimers disease increases substantially after the age of 70 and may affect around 50% of persons over the age of 85. However Alzheimers disease is not a normal part of aging and is not something that certainly happens in later life, many people live to over 100 years of age and never develop Alzheimers disease. Fig 1 (alz.org/brain/images/09a.jpg) In fig 1 above is a view of how massive cell loss changes the whole brain in advanced Alzheimers disease. This illustration shows a crosswise slice through the middle of the brain between the ears. In the Alzheimer’s brain, the cortex shrivels up, damaging areas involved in thinking, planning and remembering. Shrinkage is especially severe in the hippocampus, an area of the cortex that plays a key role in formation of new memories. The ventricles spaces grow larger. The risks factors implicated in Alzheimer’s disease are age, ApoE4, Down’s syndrome, head injury, low education and also family history i.e. genes. The main risk factor for Alzheimers disease is increased age. As a population ages, the frequency of Alzheimers disease continues to increase. Studies show that 10% of people over 65 years of age and 50% of those over 85 years of age have Alzheimers disease. There are also genetic risk factors for Alzheimers disease. Most patients develop Alzheimers disease after age 70. However, 2%-5% of patients develop the disease in the fourth or fifth decade of life (40s or 50s). At least half of these early onset patients have inherited gene mutations associated with their Alzheimers disease. Also a child of a patient with early onset Alzheimers disease who has one of these gene mutations has a 50% risk of developing Alzheimers disease. Other risk factors for Alzheimers disease include high blood pressure (hypertension), coronary arter y disease, diabetes, and possibly elevated blood cholesterol. Individuals who have completed less than eight years of education also have an increased risk for Alzheimers disease. These factors increase the risk of Alzheimers disease, but this does not mean Alzheimers disease is necessarily expected in persons with these factors. The onset of Alzheimers disease is usually gradual, and it is slowly progressive. Problems of memory, particularly for recent events (short-term memory) are common early in the course of Alzheimers disease. Mild personality changes, such as less spontaneity, apathy, and a tendency to withdraw from social interactions, may occur early in the illness. As the disease progresses, problems in abstract thinking and in other intellectual functions develop. Further disturbances in behaviour and appearance may also be seen at this point, such as agitation, irritability and a deteriorating ability to dress appropriately. Later in the course of the disorder, affected individuals may become confused or disoriented. Eventually, patients will be unable to engage in conversation, become erratic in mood, uncooperative, and lose bladder and bowel control. In late stages of the disease, persons may become totally incapable of caring for themselves, and a result of this could be death. Those who develo p the disorder later in life more often die from other illnesses (i.e. heart disease). Fig 2 Deaths from Alzheimers disease: (alz.org/downloads/Facts_Figures_2011.pdf) From Fig 2 Alzheimer’s disease is the sixth-leading cause of death in the country and the only cause of death among the top 10 in the United States that cannot be prevented, cured or even slowed. From the data in the graph, death rates have declined for most major diseases while deaths from Alzheimer’s disease have risen 66 percent during the same period. Unfortunately, there is no cure for AD. However there are goals in treating AD, these goals are to slow the progression of the disease (although this is difficult to do), manage behaviour problems, confusion, sleep problems, and agitation, modify the home environment and support family members and other caregivers. Cholinesterase blockers are one of the main treatments of AD. Cholinesterase inhibitors are prescribed to treat symptoms related to memory, thinking, language, judgment and other thought processes. The different cholinesterase inhibitors are Donepezil, Rivastigmine, Galanthamine, Tacrine and Memantine. The three main drugs currently licensed for the treatment of AD are Donepezil, Rivastigmine and Galanthamine. Donepezil is the generic name and the brand name is Aricept. Donepezil is approved at all stages of Alzheimer’s disease. However the side effects of this drug are nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and increased frequency of bowel movements. Galanthamine, brand name Razadyne, is approved for the mild to moderate stages of AD. The side effects of Galanthamine are nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and increased frequency of bowel movements. Memantine (brand name Namenda), is approved for moderate to severe stages of AD, The side effects of this drug are headache, constipation, confusion and dizziness. Rivastigmine (brand name Exelon), approved for mild to moderate Alzheimer’s, the side effects of Rivastigmine are nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and increased frequency of bowel movements. Tacrine (also known as Cognex), this was the first cholinesterase inhibitor and was approved in 1993 but is rarely prescribed today; this is because of associated side effects which i nclude possible liver damage. Cholinesterase inhibitors work by increasing levels of acetylcholine, a chemical messenger involved in memory, judgment and other thought processes. Certain brain cells release acetylcholine, which helps deliver messages to other cells. After a message reaches the receiving cell, various other chemicals, including an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, break acetylcholine down so it can be recycled. But Alzheimer’s disease damages or destroys cells that produce and use acetylcholine, thereby reducing the amount available to carry messages. A cholinesterase inhibitor slows the breakdown of acetylcholine by blocking the activity of acetylcholinesterase. By maintaining acetylcholine levels, the drug may help compensate for the loss of functioning brain cells. The benefits of cholinesterase inhibitors are that people taking the cholinesterase inhibitor medications performed better on memory and thinking tests than those taking a placebo, or inactive substance. In terms of overall effect, most experts believe cholinesterase inhibitors may delay or slow worsening of symptoms for about six months to a year; although some people may benefit more dramatically or for a longer time. Namenda is approved to treat moderate-to-severe Alzheimers disease. Namenda works by a different mechanism than other Alzheimers treatments; it is thought to play a protective role in the brain by regulating the activity of a different brain chemical called glutamate. Glutamate also plays a role in learning and memory. Brain cells in people with Alzheimer’s disease release too much glutamate (Alzheimer’s Association 2007). Namenda helps regulate glutamate activity. Namenda works by blocking the receptors for the neurotransmitter glutamate. It is believed that glutamate plays an important role in the neural pathways associated with learning and memory. In brain disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, overexcitation of neurons produced by abnormal levels of glutamate may be associated with neuronal cell dysfunction (resulting in cognitive and memory deficits) and eventual cell death (leading to deterioration and collapse of intellectual functioning). By selectively blocking a type of glutamate receptor (NMDA receptor) while allowing for normal neurotransmission, Namenda may help reduce the excitotoxic effects associated with abnormal transmission of glutamate. (psychatlanta.com) Namenda may have increased benefit when used with Aricept, Exelon, Razadyne, or Cognex. Memantine, a voltagegated and uncompetitive NMDA antagonist with moderate affinity, can protect neurons from excitotoxicity. It was approved for treatment of the patients with moderate to severe AD.   (Alzheimer’s Association 2007) A growing body of evidence suggest that drugs indicated for other conditions may also possess preventive efficacy for AD. Among the most promising are antioxidants, nonsteroidal, statins, certain anti hypertensive agents, alcohol, fish oil and possibly estrogen. Antioxidants have been recommended for prevention of dementia. The use of natural antioxidants may inhibit damage to the muscarinic receptors caused by free radicals, possibly by preventing or treating AD. High dietary intake of vitamins C and E lower the risk of AD. Estrogen is a weak antioxidant, it is biologically plausible that hormone replacement therapy (HRT) could protect against AD (Zandi PP et al 2002). AD is more likely to develop in a person with atherosclerotic cerebrovascular disease (Postiglione 1995). Antiatheroscleotic pharmacotherapies are used to treat atherosclerotic cerebrovascular disease, which then prevents AD from occurring (John B et al 2004). Folic acid is a AD preventer and is effective against AD. Folic acid is effective because it reduces homocysteine concentration, increased levels of homocysteine concentration increases the risk of AD. Statins is very effective at reducing the risk of AD. Statins reduce the risk of AD by reducing the cholesterol levels by interfering with the activity of enzyme. Moderate take of alcohol and intake of N-3 fatty acids reduces the risk of AD. Studies have shown that intake of N-3 fatty acids and weekly consumption of fish can decrease the risk of AD by 60 %. Pharmacological treatments of Alzheimers disease are limited. Recent observational studies have shown that use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may protect against the development of the disease, possibly through their anti-inflammatory properties.  Ã‚   (Mahyar et al 2007) The results from research which has been carried out has been varied. Caffeine can be used as a treatment in Alzheimers disease (Chuanhai et al 2009). Caffeine causes most of its biological effects via antagonizing all types of adenosine receptors (ARs), as does adenosine, exerts effects on neurons and glial cells of all brain areas. In consequence, caffeine, when acting as an AR antagonist, is doing the opposite of activation of adenosine receptors due to removal of endogenous adenosinergic tonus. Caffeine, through antagonism of ARs, affects brain functions such as sleep, cognition, learning, and memory, and modifies brain dysfunctions and diseases i.e. Alzheimer’s disease. (Gary W et al 2009). Studies shows that people that take regular supplements decrease the risk of AD. Many people take folate (vitamin B9), vitamin B12, and vitamin E. However, there is no strong evidence that taking these vitamins prevents AD or slows the disease once it occurs. Recent studies have shown that people believe that the herb ginkgo biloba prevents or slows the development of dementia. However, high-quality studies have failed to show that this herb lowers the chance of developing dementia. Treatment of ancillary symptoms of Alzheimer disease has improved as well. Techniques have evolved to treat depression, sleeplessness, agitation, paranoia. Also family support is a cure in its own why which gives the patient a feel good feeling to overcome AD. References Volume 20, Supplement 1, 2010 Therapeutic Opportunities for Caffeine in Alzheimers Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases (Guest Editors: Alexandre de Mendonà §a and Rodrigo A. Cunha) Pages 3-15 Volume 20, Number 3, June 2010 Special Issue Basics of Alzheimer’s Disease Prevention (Editor: Jack de la Torre) Pages 687-688 Supplement 3, November 2010 Anesthetics and Alzheimers Disease (Guest Editors: Pravat K. Mandal and Vincenzo Fodale) November 2010 Pages 1-3 Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimers disease and other disorders associated with dementia: EFNS guideline Volume 14, Issue 1, pages 1–26, January 2007, From mild cognitive impairment to prodromal Alzheimer disease: A nosological evolution J.L. Molinuevo, C. Valls-Pedret, L. Rami, Volume 1, Issue 3, June 2010, Pages 146-154 G. Waldemar; B. Dubois; M. Emre; J. Georges; I. G. McKeith ; M. Rossor; P. Scheltens; P. Tariska; B. Winblad, Article first published online: 9 JAN 2007, European Journal of Neurology Mahyar Etminan et al 2003,Effect of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on risk of Alzheimers disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies   doi: 10.1136/bmj.327.7407.128, BMJ. 2003 July 19; 327(7407): 128. Gary W Arendash, Takashi Mori, Chuanhai Cao, Malgorzata Mamcarz, Melissa Runfeldt, Alexander Dickson, Kavon Rezai-Zadeh, Jun Tan, Bruce A Citron, Xiaoyang Lin, Valentina Echeverria, and Huntington Potter. Caffeine Reverses Cognitive Impairment and Decreases Brain Amyloid-%u03B2 Levels in Aged Alzheimers Disease Mice. Journal of Alzheimers Disease, Volume 17:3 (July 2009) Chuanhai Cao, John R Cirrito, Xiaoyang Lin, Lilly Wang, Deborah K Verges, Alexander Dickson, Malgorzata Mamcarz, Chi Zhang, Takashi Mori, Gary W Arendash, David M Holzman, and Huntington Potter. Caffeine Suppresses Amyloid-%u03B2 Levels in Plasma and Brain of Alzheimers Disease Transgenic Mice. Journal of Alzheimers Disease, Volume 17:3 (July 2009) John B. Standridge MD (2004) Pharmacotherapeutic approaches to the prevention of Alzheimers disease, Department of Family Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center College of Medicine, Chattanooga Unit, Chattanooga, Tennessee, USA. Zandi PP et al (2002 Nov 6), Hormone replacement therapy and incidence of Alzheimer disease in older women: the Cache County Study, JAMA. 288(17):2123-9. Postiglione A, Napoli C, (1995 Aug 6), Curr Opin Lipidol. Hyperlipidaemia and atherosclerotic cerebrovascular disease. (4):236-42 alz.org/national/documents/topicsheet_treatments.pdf ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC165707/?tool=pubmed webmd.com/alzheimers/guide/treatment-overview ant.org.tw/Mag_Files/19-4/B.19-4ra.pdf ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21213151 alz.org/downloads/Facts_Figures_2011.pdf cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Transmission-of-Nerve-Impulses.topicArticleId-22032,articleId-21935.html psychatlanta.com/documents/namenda.pdf

Rationalizing drug patent system - striking the balance between the pioneer drug manufacturers and the public interest The WritePass Journal

Rationalizing drug patent system - striking the balance between the pioneer drug manufacturers and the public interest Abstract: Rationalizing drug patent system striking the balance between the pioneer drug manufacturers and the public interest Abstract:1. Introduction2. Patent Protection for Drugs:2.1 Rationale2.2 Effects: Are generics at stake of malady of public health?3. Measures adopted to address the drug pricing problem4. WTO –TRIPS and Traditional Methods to the Address the Problem through Compulsory Licensure and Parallel Imports4.1 Misdirected innovation4.2 Me-too drugs4.3 â€Å"Deadweight losses†5. New Reward System for Pharmaceutical Innovation: Reward Contests as a Primer for Innovation5.1   The proposed reward system and its implementation: Generics a New stand5.2   Significances of the proposed system5.2.1 Better direction of research expenditures5.2.2 Elimination of â€Å"Deadweight Loss† (DWL)5.2.3 Efficient marketing5.3 Possible global implications of the proposed system6. Discussion and conclusionBibliographyRelated Abstract: Pharmaceuticals and drug markets functioning poorly because, system of patent does not effectively stimulate drug research and development. Instead, it is inducing large amounts of research into therapeutics with relatively low incremental therapeutic index, while providing inadequate incentives to innovate in some areas of great therapeutic value life saving drugs. As a result, patents lead to high prices which exclude many users from access to potentially life-saving drugs and anti-retroviral.In this essay, I supported to proposed novel reward system for pharmaceutical innovation, in which innovators are rewarded based on the incremental therapeutic outcomes of their innovation. This may align innovators’ incentives with social objectives i.e., public interest of affordable price of drugs and lead to the best possible allocation of RD investment. When rewards given directly to innovators, patents could be compulsorily licensed to enable competitive drug pricing, thus solving problems of drug access. Government expenditures on rewards could be largely derived through reduced expenditures on patented drugs, and pharmaceutical innovators could continue to earn a good return on their RD investments. 1. Introduction The patent system was designed to foster the research, development and cater the need of the society by using it for the public welfare. The members of the WTO have to follow the minimum standards of the intellectual property protection laid by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). The WTO-TRIPS try to create a common platform for countries of different economic caliber to have a common trading platform. The idea is to provide all the essential products like drugs to be made available at an affordable price. In this assignment the first part deals with global efforts of international organizations and domestic legislations of developed nations to achieve the above purpose and the pharmaceutical lobby to curtail it. It also deals with the generic drugs and their availability .The latter part will also discuss the policy considerations, reforms and alternatives   to make the pharmaceutical patent system a more effective and strong structure by creating a striking balance between the interests of the brand drug pharmaceutical companies on one side and the public interest on the other side. 2. Patent Protection for Drugs: 2.1 Rationale General rationale for patent system comes in two forms. There is the argument of natural rights, where product (drugs) rights are seen as property rights owned to the companies that develop them. The protection is there to prevent other companies from free riding. The theoretical basis is strong, Consistent with Locke’s theory of labor and property rights, in an industry that is labor (intellectual labor) intensive, where generics can easily take the profit away from the companies that made the investment, the fruits of labor are entitled to strong property rights. The second and more pragmatic view is that such system enables pharmaceutical companies to recoup their investment in the RD of new drugs and therefore offers the right incentives for those manufactures to continue their innovation and investment. It is reasoned that such a policy will reap the maximum social benefits. The high cost of drug RD is real; United States has one of the most stringent FDA approval protocols, in order to ensure the safety and efficacy. The three clinical trials usually last between five and seven years. Less than one percent of all drugs make it to clinical trials and four percent of those make it to the market.[1] Therefore, the cost of one drug in the market also includes, and should include the RD costs for the several drugs that never made it to the market. U.S government in 1990 estimated that a new drug took ten to twelve years to come to market at a cost of $359M.[2] Such money and time commitment, it is argued, justifies the pharmaceutical companies’ need for a relatively long time of exclusive market monopoly to make some profits. 2.2 Effects: Are generics at stake of malady of public health? The generic medicine is what comes to market after the patent term expires.[3] Currently, this is the only legal way for consumers in most parts of the globe to get a medicine for a cheaper price. Because of the low price of generic medicines, they constitute only a small portion of the overall pharmaceutical revenue. In 1997, the dollar sales of branded drugs in the United States amounted to $71.8 billion, and 90% comes from brand name prescription drugs.[4]   Sooner the generic medicine comes into the market, greater the financial loss to the branded pharmaceutical companies. Therefore the RD pharmaceutical companies have employed a variety tactics to elongate their term of patent protection. At the same time, generic drugs are the saviors of some of the under developed nations in the world that are also burdened with the highest HIV infection rate. Without generic medicines coming to them sooner, the horrible situation there will get worse. 3. Measures adopted to address the drug pricing problem The issue of consumer access to generic drugs through the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984[5], (the Hatch-Waxman Act) was trying to do two things: it reduces the burden on generic drug companies in their effort to get FDA approval; and it compensates RD pharmaceutical companies for their time spent in the FDA approval process with more patent protection time. The Hatch-Waxman Act has not achieved its intended purpose, it has been reported that pharmaceutical companies have designed strategies to take unfair advantage of this act to maximize their profits. These strategies include applying for patents over a period of time that covers different aspects of a drug so that new patents become active as old patents expire.[6] It is extensively acknowledged that some patent legislation do serve remarkable public interest. The Orphan Drug Act[7] grants exclusivity to drugs that affect fewer than 200,000 people where pharmaceutical companies that develop them would otherwise not be able to realize a profit at all. The pediatric exclusivity clause of the Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997 also uses patent protection to promote overall social benefits.[8] Similarly, the European Parliament gave a fillip to the Bolar-type exception by its 16 April 1996 resolution which supported the measure, albeit in a much narrower sense.[9] Specifically, European Community Directive 2001/83/EC on medicinal products for human use, provides for the Bolar-type exemption provisions.[10] This exception is particular relevance to generic drug manufacturers who wish seeking regulatory approval for their products, modeled on patented pharmaceuticals that are in their twilight. 4. WTO –TRIPS and Traditional Methods to the Address the Problem through Compulsory Licensure and Parallel Imports The context of access to life saving medicines in developing countries, the WTO Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Doha Declaration on Public Health[11] provides for special provisions ranging from parallel import, government use, to compulsory licensing, to facilitate and improve access to affordable life-saving drugs.[12] However, it has been noted that Article 31bis, the arrowhead of the new amendment to TRIPS, that is especially ratified to facilitate access to essential drugs by developing countries that have limited or no manufacturing capacity, is encumbered with administrative barriers that could hamper its effectiveness. Furthermore, the proliferation of bilateral trade agreements requiring stronger intellectual property protection than TRIPS does, are generally perceived as obstacle to the implementation of TRIPS’ flexibilities by developing countries.[13] With essence, even with exceptions to pharmaceutical patent exclusivity, the current patent system is by no means, weak, and there is an ample evidence of a causal link between the current system of stronger patent protection and higher pharmaceutical prices.[14] One major concern is proliferation of patented research tools, which can potentially up the costs of pharmaceutical RD.[15] The ambiguous and perennially shrinking scope of research or experimental use exception offers little space for unfettered use of patented research tools.[16] This arguably informed the recent report of the Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation and Health (CIPIH) of the World Health Organization, urging developing countries to, inter alia; devise appropriate national legal frameworks to facilitate access to affordable prescription drugs.[17] This essay also reiterates, inter alia, the virtues of the rewards system, and open source approaches to pharmaceutical RD, with a view to easing p atents’ stranglehold on pharmaceuticals.[18] Other major issues of Patent Monopoly System and Pharmaceuticals 4.1 Misdirected innovation Since prices in pharmaceutical markets do not necessarily satisfy value to consumers, profits are not expected to be proportional to the social value of an innovation. There are four types of problems which arise here, which are. First, the pricing of branded (pioneer) drugs may bear no particular relationship to social value. Second, â€Å"me-too† drugs may be able to yield large profits even though they offer little or no therapeutic advantage over prior existed therapies. Third, firms may find it very profitable to develop minor modifications to their own prior existing drugs, as a sort of ever greening strategy. Fourth, profits from RD and showing new uses for non-patented compounds will be small and may not support investing in clinical trials to demonstrate efficacy. 4.2 Me-too drugs Many commentators have been very critical of what appears to be an accelerating number of â€Å"me-too† drugs (also called â€Å"follow-on† drugs). Me-too drugs are products which largely duplicate the action of existing drug. For example, there are now many â€Å"statins† to help fight cholesterol, and, as some commentators have observed, it is not evident that there is much social benefit from so much variety.[19] Me-too drugs can be precious in providing therapeutic choice, and perhaps also benefits from competition; but they also may harm the returns available to the break-through drug in a class by capturing market share[20]. It is arguable that firms have devoted an excessive share of innovative research into developing me-too drugs, which have relatively little incremental therapeutic value, but which harms the returns available to the first drug in the market. 4.3 â€Å"Deadweight losses† The current implemented patent system also causes substantial welfare losses because consumers who would buy the product if it were priced at somewhere nearer production cost do not buy it at the monopoly price.[21] The welfare loss caused by this is called the â€Å"deadweight loss† (DWL) of monopoly pricing, since there is a pure loss to society when consumers do not obtain a product which they value more than the cost of manufacturing it.[22] Using highly aggregated data, claim that the scale of deadweight loss in the US drug market is on the order of $3bn- $30bn annually; the same authors estimate deadweight losses of $5bn on $8bn of sales, which indicates very large DWL for the market overall.[23]   Globally, the DWL is clear, because in many markets, drug insurance is unavailable and so consumers are more price-sensitive. The following section will briefly review the literature on the possible alternatives to the patent system, and how best to deploy them to mitigate the costs of patents. 5. New Reward System for Pharmaceutical Innovation: Reward Contests as a Primer for Innovation As seen above, the patent monopoly system doesn’t serve the pharmaceuticals market very well – it leads to misdirected innovation[24], to substantial deadweight losses[25], to counterfeit drugs[26], to price controls[27], and arguably to excessive marketing and unnecessary risks to patients. These features are not observed in other markets.[28] This suggests that there are two crucial requirements for an effective system of funding innovation in pharmaceuticals. First, the rewards for innovation in pharmaceuticals should be proportional to the social value of the innovation. Second, prices should be near average production cost, in order to minimize deadweight losses and counterfeit drugs, and to eliminate the need for price controls. The following section details a proposal for a system which meets these requirements. 5.1   The proposed reward system and its implementation: Generics a New stand Method for rewarding patented pharmaceuticals with payments or rewards paid out of a government-financed Pharmaceutical Innovation Fund (PIF). When a drug is approved for use in a country, it would be registered by a firm, normally by the owner of related patents required in the production of the drug.[29] PIF would make payments to registrants, and in exchange for such payments, registrants would be compelled to grant zero-priced licenses for all listed patents when used to make and sell the drug. The payments would be annual during the period in which the registrant’s drugs were patented. Rewards might also be paid for patented cost-reducing process innovations, and for court verdicts of invalidity or non-infringement which allowed for generic production without a compulsory license. The aim of this section is to outline how the fund should determine the reward for a given innovation. Each patented drug would given points reflecting gain in average therapeutic value less costs of treatment over that of the next best pre-existing treatment, for all units of the drug sold by the registrant and by other manufacturers in a given year. Drugs that improve health would get reward = Incremental value of QALY[30] Ãâ€" Dollar value of QALY (Quality Adjusted Life Years)[31]. This will be determined on the therapeutic value determinant of the drugs. Better the therapeutic value more the reward. This put simply means that the pleasure drug like Viagra would enjoy less reward than the life saving essential drug. Cost reducing innovations should be given the points that have been achieved by using the patented technology = Average price of the medicine set by all sellers using patented innovations – Average price not using the patented innovation Ãâ€" number of pills sold. This can be a parameter for the successful invention as the number of drugs sold will generate more revenue and this parameter can be used for determining successful invention. Registrant would get points for every sale of its drug, no matter who produced or sold the product, so that the reward is really for the innovation, clinical testing, and marketing of the product. In principal, the innovator need not produce/sell the drug, though it would have an incentive to market the drug so as to increase the volume of sales on which it could earn points. In many instances, drugs are given for a variety of different conditions, and so the therapeutic value, as well as the next best therapies, would be different for different conditions. This implies that it would be useful to obtain evidence from prescribing doctors on what conditions drugs were prescribed for, through random sampling of doctors.[32] 5.2   Significances of the proposed system The potential significance of the proposal are immense, including making drugs more widely accessible, eliminating over pricing, improving the direction of research spending, and marketing incentives more efficient. 5.2.1 Better direction of research expenditures This proposed system would make the incentives to innovate proportional in a meaningful way to social value, since the award given to the drug registrant would be appropriate with the net benefit created by the drug. This would increase the incentives to find new drugs with large incremental therapeutic value, and decrease the incentives to find new products which offered little extra benefit. (And with fewer me-too products, and less incentive to advertise them, profits of pioneer innovators would be even higher.) And it could become profitable to demonstrate the therapeutic value of old, unpatented compounds for new uses, if rewards were paid to patentees who had shown the therapeutic value of the patented use of the drug 5.2.2 Elimination of â€Å"Deadweight Loss† (DWL) Prices of drugs under this proposal would fall to approximately the average cost of production. Based on experience with medicines facing generic competition today, this implies that patented drug prices would decrease by on average 50% to 80%. This would obviously be beneficial for consumers, with total savings in the US of on the order of $100bn annually. Global, savings might be on the order of $200bn. Much of this saving would be used up in paying for rewards. Aside from the reduction in total expense to consumers, there would be a welfare gain from increased consumption of lower-priced medicines. Deadweight loss (DWL) from the current patent system is certainly immense in pharmaceutical markets. The efficiency gains from reducing drug prices to approximately the average cost of production could easily be over $100bn, and the gains in terms of saved lives would likely be very good in number. 5.2.3 Efficient marketing The proposed system of rewards would not prevent marketing by the drug registrant. Indeed, promotions which prolonged demand could be profitable, since the registrant obtains points for more sales, based on the average net benefit. However, the effect of this marketing would be wholly profitable: marketing with increased sales such that the net benefit was negative would decrease the reward obtained. So manufacturers would have an incentive to promote the drug to obtain the largest number of consumers with a positive net profit. However, the amount of promotional activity would be declined under this proposal because there would be lesser copycat drugs competing to attract a restricted number of prescriptions. 5.3 Possible global implications of the proposed system This system is ideal for enabling wide international access to life saving drugs, while eliminating ineffective parallel imports between nations having different prices. Innovator could be resident anywhere; and with prices equal to the average cost of production, even developing nations would be well served. However, if not all states adopted this model, then one could expect substantial parallel imports into the non-adopting states. The asymmetries could lead to some problems of coordination between adopting and non-adopting nations with respect to pharmaceutical trade and commerce. But the system if adopted by many nations could be designed to allow for small contributions in developing nations, basically by assigning them a small dollar value for each QALY. 6. Discussion and conclusion The proposal outlined in this essay presents an effective method of rewarding pharmaceutical innovation which yields two major benefits. First, it aligns private research incentives with social objectives i.e. as much focused issues of high drug prices by rewarding innovations based on their assessed therapeutic value. This is an improvement over the ordinary implementation of the current monopoly patent system, which cannot be efficient in bringing out pharmaceutical innovation given that pharmaceutical markets are extraordinarily dysfunctional. The proposed system can therefore be used to increase the rate of drug development cycle. Second, it allows for medicines to be priced at near the average cost of production, enabling widespread access to life saving drugs. It is possible to achieve both of these goals without increased government expenditures on drugs, since governments are already large buyers of high-priced medicines. The proposed system is not intended to be an assault o n the pharmaceutical industry: on the contrary, it continues to offer healthy benefits to pharmaceutical manufacturers which successfully bring valuable, innovative drugs to market, while removing the spectre of poorly-conceived, arbitrary price controls and satisfying the public interest. These significances suggest that this system deserves serious investigation. Bibliography STATUTES Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 US, (the Hatch-Waxman Act) The Orphan Drug Act of US Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997 Food Drug Cosmetic Act  §525-528 European Community Directive 2001/83/EC, Article 10 (1), (a), (i), (ii), (iii) OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS Paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, at wto.org/English/thwto_e/minist_e/min01_e/mindec_trips_e.htm Oxfam, â€Å"Fatal Side Effects: Medicine Patents Under the Microscope.† In Brigitte Granville, ed., The Economics of Essential Medicines, (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2002). Report of the Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation and Public Health, Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property Rights, (Geneva: WHO Press, 2006), at 175-188. Carlos Maria Correa, â€Å"Implications of bilateral free trade agreements on access to medicines,† Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 84, No. 5 (2006). John H. Baton, â€Å"Research-tool patents: issues for health in the developing world,† Bulletin of the World Health Organization vol. 80, No. 2 (2002). The Gale Group, Intellectual Property Rules: A Delicate Balancing Act for Drug Development, 23 Chain Drug Rev. RX13 2001. BOOKS Peter Drahos and Ruth Mayne, Global Intellectual Property Rights: Knowledge, Access and Development, eds., (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) JOURNALS Angell, Marcia, â€Å"The Pharmaceutical Industry: To whom is it Accountable?† (2000), 342:1902-1904, New England Journal of Med Elyse Tanouye Robert Langreth, ‘Times Up: with Patents Expiring on Big Prescriptions, Drug Industry Quakes’, (Aug 12, 1997) The Wall Street Journal. Frederick M. Abbott and Jerome H. Reichman, â€Å"The Doha Round’s Public Health Legacy: Strategies for the Production and Diffusion of Patented Medicines under the Amended TRIPS Provisions,† (December 2007), vol. 10, No. 4, JIEL. George Foster, ‘Opposing Forces in a Revolution in International Patent Protection: the U.S. and India in the Uruguay Round and Its Aftermath’, (1998) 3 UCLA J. Int’l L For. Aff. Lara Glasgow, ‘Stretching the Limits of Intellectual Property Rights: Has the Pharmaceutical Industry Gone Too Far?’ (2001) 41 J.L.Tech. Tao Huang, â€Å"The Experimental Purpose Doctrine and Biomedical Research,† (2004), vol. 11 Michigan Telecom Tech L Review.       [1] Elyse Tanouye Robert Langreth, ‘Times Up: with Patents Expiring on Big Prescriptions, Drug Industry Quakes’, (Aug 12, 1997), The Wall Street Journal. [2] George Foster, Opposing Forces in a Revolution in International Patent Protection: the U.S. and India in the Uruguay Round and Its Aftermath, (1998), 3 UCLA J. Int’l L For. Aff. 283. [3] This is the stage when the drugs that are almost equivalent in substance and efficacy to the original drugs can be sold for a fraction of the original price. [4] The Gale Group, Intellectual Property Rules: A Delicate Balancing Act for Drug Development, 23 Chain Drug Rev. RX13 2001. [5] See Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, Pub. L. No. 98-417, 98 Stat. 1585. Codified as 35 USC. [6] Lara Glasgow, Stretching the Limits of Intellectual Property Rights: Has the Pharmaceutical Industry Gone Too Far?, (2001), 41 J.L.Tech, 227.( For example, Bristol-Myers secured a new patent that was closely related to its original patent on the anti-cancer drug Taxol months before its original patent expired in 1997) [7]  §360aa-360ee (Food Drug Cosmetic Act  §525-528); An   example of this system working is that Merck, Sharp Dome, Inc. is developing drugs to treat Wilson’s disease, where only about one hundred Americans can potentially benefit from such a drug. Without proper patent protection, such development would not have taken place in the first place and people who suffer from the disease would be the ones to lose. [8] There an exclusive period of six months following a patent term is offered to pioneer companies to conduct clinical investigations to determine safe and effective doses for children. [9] Paragraph 17 of the European Parliament 1996 Resolution provides as follows: â€Å"Measures should be introduced which enable pharmaceutical companies to begin, in advance of patent or supplementary protection certificate (SPC) expiry, such laboratory experiments and regulatory preparations as may be required only for the registration of generic pharmaceuticals developed in the EU, to be available on the market immediately, but only after the expiry of a patent or SPC for a proprietary product.† [10] See Article 10 (1), (a), (i), (ii), (iii), Directive 2001/83/EC on the Community code relating to medicinal products for human use, (as amended). [11] See Paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, at wto.org/English/thwto_e/minist_e/min01_e/mindec_trips_e.htm (accessed on May 20, 2011). [12] See Frederick M. Abbott and Jerome H. Reichman, â€Å"The Doha Round’s Public Health Legacy: Strategies for the Production and Diffusion of Patented Medicines under the Amended TRIPS Provisions,† (December 2007), vol. 10, No. 4, Journal of International Economic Law, at 929-957. [13] See for example, Carlos Maria Correa, â€Å"Implications of bilateral free trade agreements on access to medicines,† (2006), vol. 84, No. 5, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, at 399-404. [14] See Oxfam, â€Å"Fatal Side Effects: Medicine Patents Under the Microscope.† In Brigitte Granville, ed., The Economics of Essential Medicines, (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2002) at 81-99, (noting that patented drugs are more expensive than off-patent drugs); Kumariah Balasubramaniam, â€Å"Access to Medicines: Patents, Prices and Public Policy – Consumer Perspectives.† In Peter Drahos and Ruth Mayne, Global Intellectual Property Rights: Knowledge, Access and Development, eds., (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) at 90-107. [15] See John H. Baton, â€Å"Research-tool patents: issues for health in the developing world,† (2002) vol. 80, No. 2, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, at 121-125. [16] See for example, Tao Huang, â€Å"The Experimental Purpose Doctrine and Biomedical Research,† (2004), Vol. 11, Michigan Telecommunication Technology Law Review, at 97-115. [17] See Report of the Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, Innovation and Public Health, Public Health, Innovation and Intellectual Property Rights, (Geneva: WHO Press, 2006), at 175-188. [18] Id [19] Angell, Marcia, â€Å"The Pharmaceutical Industry: To whom is it Accountable?† New England Journal of Medicine, 2000, 342:1902-1904. p. 90) argues that many me-too drugs are never tested at equivalent doses to show that there are significant differences in outcomes for some patients, and claims that â€Å"the idea that patients respond differently to me-too drugs is merely an untested – and self-serving – hypothesis.† [20] DiMasi J and C Paquette, â€Å"The Economics of Follow-on Drug Research and Development Trends in Entry Rates and the Timing of Development† Pharmaco-economics 22 (Suppl. 2), 2004: 1-14. [21] Avorn, Jerry, Powerful medicines. (New York, 2004): Knopf. p. 262(discusses how deadweight losses can occur even when there is full insurance. Insurers may be unwilling to cover certain medicines, such as osteoporosis drugs, whose benefits mainly appear only after some years.); the patent system as now implemented also causes substantial welfare losses because consumers who would buy the product if it were priced at somewhere nearer production cost do not buy it at the monopoly price. The welfare loss caused by this is called by economists the â€Å"deadweight loss† (DWL) of monopoly pricing. [22] Guell R. and M. Fischbaum, â€Å"Toward allocative efficiency in the prescription drug industry.† Milbank Quarterly, 1995, 73: 213-229. [23] Douglas and Guell (2004) use US and Canadian data to argue that the DWL in the US market for a large number of drugs is at least 25% of sales. [24] It is well known that monopoly exploitation of innovations under the patent system can reduce the benefits or â€Å"surplus† available to society from an innovation. [25] Supra note 21. [26] A recent statement of the US Assistant Attorney General in a vaccine price-gouging case claimed that an â€Å"exorbitant market price †¦ may increase the incentive for counterfeiters to manufacture fake, ineffective, and potentially unsafe† drugs. (Statement of Interest of the United States, in Office of the Florida Attorney General v. ASAP Meds, Inc., Broward County Circuit Court, October 22, 2004.) [27] Supra note 20 [28] For example, in automobile markets, consumers are relatively competent to assess product quality and to make informed decisions about purchasing based on prices, quality, and their own budgets. Automobile makers therefore have incentives to develop differentiated products which respond to consumers’ demands. Deadweight losses are relatively small in automobile markets because prices are close to the average cost of production, counterfeits are relatively rare, and price controls are not used. [29] It is possible that a registrant might not own all the required patents, in which case registration would require the registrant to obtain a license to the patents from the patentee. [30] Quality-adjusted life year (QALY) is a measure of disease burden, including both the quality and the quantity of life lived. It is used in assessing the value for money of a medical intervention. The QALY is based on the number of years of life that would be added by the intervention. Each year in perfect health is assigned the value of 1.0 down to a value of 0.0 for death. If the extra years would not be lived in full health, for example if the patient would lose a limb, or be blind or have to use a wheelchair, then the extra life-years are given a value between 0 and 1 to account for this. In a worst possible health state it will be from 0 to negative value. [31] Drugs which advance health should be given points reflecting the gain in average therapeutic value less costs of treatment over that of the next best pre-existing treatment. It will determine the net benefit of a drug, and then compare it to the net benefit of the next most effective pre-existing therapy, and award points based on the improvement. These points would be awarded to the registrant for each year in which the registrant’s patents would, in the absence of compulsory licensing, be sufficient to prevent other firms from producing bio-equivalent products. [32] This would be particularly important for some drugs which have extensive off-label uses (uses for which the FDA has not approved the product). There are claims that up to half of all prescriptions are written for off-label uses. â€Å"How Drug Directory Helps Raise Tab for Medicaid and Insurers†, Wall Street Journal Oct. 23, 2003. IMS Health already conducts in the US a survey of this sort entitled the â€Å"National Disease and Therapeutic Index.†

Luxury Retail Development in Hong Kong and Macau Assignment

Luxury Retail Development in Hong Kong and Macau - Assignment Example The paper highlights on the significant role that marketers play and even some of the tactics that they apply to meet their objectives.As the report highlights in the next five to seven years, China is expected to overtake Japan and become the world’s largest luxury market according to a report by Lu.Two administrative regions of China, that include Macau and Hong Kong are the key indicators of the current surge in luxury retail market in the country. Demand for luxury goods in these two cities have been observed to be on the rise despite economic slowdown, which had severe effects on major markets in the world including China. Lucrative market in Hong Kong and Macau in addition to consumers’ increased buying power has lured international luxury companies to make investment in these two markets. This essay will provide an assessment of luxury retail development in Hong Kong and Macau in relation to evolution of luxury retail market in these two cities and marketing stra tegies, which are being employed by businesses parties in the industry.  Early 1990s marked the development of luxury retail market in China. Prior to 1980s, government restrictions hampered introduction of western goods and services in the country. Consequently, internationally established luxury companies could not be able to penetrate the Chinese market.  Majority of households in the country including those in Hong Kong and Macau had lower purchasing power.

Health team role in minimizing adverse events in the hospital Essay

Health team role in minimizing adverse events in the hospital literature review - Essay Example Miller M R, J S Clark, C U Lehmann.(2006). Computer based medication error reporting: insights and implications. Qual Saf Health Care.;15:208-213. Adams Sally Taylor & Vincent Charles. Systems Analysis of Clinical Incidents-The London Protocol. Clinical Safety Research Unit .Imperial College London. Mohr J J & P B Batalden.(2002). Improving safety on the front lines: the role of clinical Microsystems. Qual Saf Health Care 2002;11:45-50 Wilson R.M., Runciman W.B., Gibberd R.W., Harrison B.T., Newby L. & Hamilton J.D. (1995) The quality in Australian health care study. Medical Journal of Australia 163, 458-471. Buist M., Jarmolowski E., Burton P., Bernard S., Waxman B. & Anderson J. (1999) .Recognising clinical instability in hospital patients before cardiac arrest or unplanned admission to intensive care. A pilot study in a tertiary-care hospital. Medical Journal of Australia 171, 22-25. Franklin C., Mamdani B. & Burke G. (1986). Prediction of hospital arrests: toward a preventative strategy. Clinical Research 34, 954A. Sax F.L. & Charlson M.E. (1987). Medical patients at high risk for catastrophic deterioration. Critical Care Medicine 15, 510-515. Schein R.M., Hazday N., Pena M., Ruben B.H. & Sprung C.L. (1990). Clinical antecedents to in-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest.Chest 98, 1388-1392. Considine J. & Botti M. (2004). Who, when and where Identification of patients at risk of an in-hospital adverse event: implications for nursing practice. International Journal of Nursing Practice 10,21-31. Daffurn K., Lee A., Hillman K.M., Bishop G.F. & Bauman A. (1994). Do nurses know when to summon emergency assistance Intensive and Critical Care Nursing 10, 115-120. Lee A., Bishop G., Hillman K.M. & Daffurn K. (1995). The medical emergency team. Anaesthesia...The Canadian Adverse Events Study: the incidence of adverse events among hospital patients in Canada. JAMC - 25 MAI 2004; 170 (11) Buist M., Jarmolowski E., Burton P., Bernard S., Waxman B. & Anderson J. (1999) .Recognising clinical instability in hospital patients before cardiac arrest or unplanned admission to intensive care. A pilot study in a tertiary-care hospital. Medical Journal of Australia 171, 22-25. Considine J. & Botti M. (2004). Who, when and where Identification of patients at risk of an in-hospital adverse event: implications for nursing practice. International Journal of Nursing Practice 10,21-31. McGloin H., Adam S.K. & Singer M. (1999). Unexpected deaths andreferrals to intensive care of patients on general wards. Are some cases potentially avoidable Journal of the Royal College of Physicians:London 33, 255-259. Brennan T A, L L Leape, N M Laird, L Hebert, A R Localio, A G Lawthers, J P Newhouse, P C Weiler,H H Hiatt.(2004).Incidence of adverse events and negligence in hospitalized patients: results of the Harvard Medical Practice Study .Qual Saf Health Care 2004;13:145-152. Jain,M, L Miller, D Belt, D King and D M Berwick.(2006).Decline in ICU adverse events, nosocomial infections and cost through a quality improvement initiative focusing on teamwork and culture change. Qual. Saf. Health Care.15;235-239. Cavallo, K. & Brienza, D.( 2003).

Looking at history "from below" Essay

Looking at history "from below" - Essay Example While Europeans may argue that religion was the main objective of their visit for America, it is clear that they exercised oppression and denied the natives of their rights, which can be better described. However, historians have ignored this fact and termed their invasion to America as a mere discovery. From this perspective, it is clear that history has been a subject of bias, influenced by the personal ideas of its authors. Dussell, an Argentine-Mexican liberator philosopher, is among authors who have focused on the subjective nature of history and its implication as far as constructing historical events is concerned. Dussell (126) opens by representing the two sides of the same coin as far as historical opinions are concerned. He argues that history can be analyzed from the top or from below, while considering the position of the writer. Analyzing the analyzing the history of Europeans entry in America from above implies analyzing the opinions presented by the European history. From the perspective of Europeans, their entry into America was either an invention of a country or even its discovery. Invention implies the creation of a country that never existed, while discovery implies the finding of a country that had not been known to exist. On the other hand, approaching history from below, Americans perceive European visitation as uncalled for and the worst form of invasion. From this point of view, h istory suffers subjectivity and the impression that it stands for depends on whether it is analyzed from a â€Å"top† or â€Å"below† approach. Evidently, criticism of history is an issue that has prevailed for many years as scholars identify the voice of the writers within historical recordings. Twain is among author who found fault in historical recordings and expressed the weakness that history has suffered for many years. Twain stated that â€Å"the very ink with which all history is written is merely fluid

Impact of Computer Technology on Modern Society and Culture

Impact of Computer Technology on Modern Society and Culture Establishing the Foundations of Modern Computer Systems In 1812, mathematics professor Charles Babbage laid the foundations of modern computing when he recognised the relation between machines and mathematics, machines performed tasks repeatedly without making mistakes, while mathematics often requires the repetition of particular tasks or steps. Ten years after making his discovery Babbage began the development of a machine that would have been the first general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. The construction of the Analytical Engine was never finalised during Babbage’s lifetime, but a century later to determine if the machine worked and it did. None the less the concept was a breakthrough in technology at the time as it outlined the required elements of the modern computer system; perforated cards containing operating instructions that acted as input devices, a memory that could store up to a thousand numbers, a control unit that could process the instructions in any sequence and an output device that would produce printed results, the essential elements of the modern day computerised system. The Modern Era The past fifth-teen years have seen major changes to many aspects of modern society and how we carry out our everyday activities and tasks, all through the means of computer technology. Many new innovative technologies have been developed that have altered of our daily life. We are now considered to be living through the Information Age, and the decisive technology of this age would have to be the Internet. It would be rare to find an organisation or household that does not experience the use of the Internet. The Internet can be used at home, at work or on the move depending on what device you are using. The New Speed of Information Knowledge Consider the speed at which we can now access almost any piece of information as computers and the Internet have made the dissemination of information and knowledge easier and much faster. The Internet provides this by connecting a computer to networks and using applications such as web browsers and search engines to access information, the Internet stores this information in the form of databases and webpages. Previous to the availability of the Internet people would have to request information by sending a letter, ask someone who knows the answer, read literature or make a telephone call. Digital Communities The Internet has created new forms of communication that are cost-free and much faster methods of gaining that sought after piece of information. Online community forums or message boards enable members to communicate with each other by exchanging tips or discussing topics. They can save information posted about a particular topic for other people to view at any time, therefore creating a discussion environment where everything that gets posted can be read numerous times. These virtual communities differ from traditional conversation as the interaction between members does not happen in real-time, forum members will often consider their comments before making a reply, helping to ensure that high-quality information is shared. A popular forum will have valuable members who are knowledgeable about many topics and will usually try to show this in their posts, this creates knowledge and useful tips for other members of the website. Forums can establish online communities, since people often return to the website on a regular basis to check previous posts or catch up on what has been happening since the last time they logged in. Building relationships with other members of forums is easy, if you regularly post and discuss topics then other forum members will get to know you and in turn you will get to know other members. Online virtual communities are rapidly replacing the physical community in society, an attraction of the online community is that members interact with other members of similar interests. Many people believe that there are negative effects from activity participating with online communities. They believe that members of these services often have reduced ability when interacting with their traditional community, this is due to the fact that members do not need to reveal their true identity. Members often remain anonymous as they can contribute thoughts and ideas under an online identity or avatar. Anonymous members can change their name, gender, appearance, occupation, sexual orientation and many other aspects of their personal details. For many shy people this can be a positive reason for becoming members of online communities, but if a person does have difficultly integrating with the traditional community then surely continuing to participate with online communities will not resolv e this issue. Social Networking Media The past five years or so have seen the introduction of social networking websites which allow users to connect with each other and share information in various formats. The emphasis in social networking is on two-way communication, not only can you publish information but your readers can comment on that information. Although the original users of social networking were computer-literate people who were publishing information for a small audience, this has changed dramatically. The creation of social networking and social media websites such as Twitter, Facebook, Flickr, Instagram and YouTube have attracted massive audiences. These websites can allow you to find and connect with fellow workers, a relative located at the other side of the globe or a school colleague from many years ago. There are millions of people sharing information in the form of blogs, millions of videos uploaded to YouTube and billions of images shared on Flickr and Instagram. Participating with these new electronic environments can make you feel like you are part of a large community, but they also have downsides. Today’s youth have perhaps been particularly affected by social networking and computers as an entertainment source in general. As music, video, games, images and all forms of media can now be stored and viewed on home computers and devices, many modern teenagers are now sitting in their bedrooms playing video games, talking on message services or updating their social networking webpages. This is believed to be leading to a form of isolation that could affect their ability to interact with others later in life. Social networking and media has proved advantageous in times of disaster and emergency, by providing on-the-ground information in a disaster area or providing community support. This medium has become a vital part of disaster response, filling a void in areas where mobile phone technology has lost service. For example as Dina Fine Maron states in her article, How Social Media Is Changing Disaster Response, on scientificamerican.com: â€Å"Hurricane Sandy slammed the eastern seaboard last year, social media had become an integral part of disaster response, filling the void in areas where cell phone service was lost while millions of Americans looked to resources including Twitter and Facebook to keep informed, locate loved ones, notify authorities and express support. Gone are the days of one-way communication where only official sources provide bulletins on disaster news.† Cyberbullying Cyberbullying can also take place in the electronic environment of these social networking websites. This involves predators posting messages of an intimidating or threatening nature, either anonymously or posing as a person the victim trusts. Children are often vulnerable to cyberbullying attacks, which can have devastating effects and leave deep mental scars. Many of these attacks have been documented in recent news and media articles, unfortunately many of the victims have been driven to suicide. Cyberbullying has spread vastly among the youth of today, a 2010 CBS News report suggested that 42% reported being victims (As stated by whoever it was on whatever website this was). Social networking and media has become a matter of concern for employers, managers and business owners now use the tactic of monitoring employee’s social networking and media webpages. Some job terminations have been the result of unsuitable content being contained on employee’s webpages or posting comments that speak unfavourably about the business they work for. It is considered that some companies are over restrictive about their policies regarding blogging, posts on social networking websites and the uploading of various media. New Shopping Methods Business Methods The rapid advances of the Internet has revolutionised the shopping behaviours of consumers and the way many companies now conduct business activities. Shopping in the business to customer environment is becoming increasingly popular for many people, this is due to the numerous benefits and the convenience that the Internet offers. If you are a modern business owner, your business needs to have an Internet presence as the Internet provides access to a potentially global customer base. The Internet has help create many entrepreneurs who have entered the online market with a good business idea and benefited from the low start-up costs. Many barriers and obstacles involved with starting a traditional physical store have been removed, in fact many people than run an Internet business from home while holding down a full-time position. Unlike high-street shopping, consumers are not restricted to the traditional model of shopping within store opening hours as they can make purchases 24 hours-per-day, seven day-per-week. Store location is no longer a concern for consumers, as enquiries or transactions regarding any product or service provided by a company can be made any time, from almost any location across the globe. They no longer need to wait in queues for long periods of time waiting to purchase a popular item on sale or push a shopping cart around aisles trying to locate a desired item. The Internet and websites allow consumers to click through navigation menus or use a search box to narrow down their search. Consumers can make purchases from the comfort of their home or on the move with the use of smartphones and other mobile devices. As Peter J. Bentley writes on page 11 of his book Digitized: â€Å"You switch on your computer and launch the Internet browser. A one-word search for ‘pizza’ finds a list of pizza restaurants in your area. One click with the mouse and you are typing in your address to see if the restaurant delivers. They do! And they also allow you to order online. You choose the type of pizza you feel like, adding your favourite toppings. The restaurant even allows you to pay online, so you type in your credit card number, your address, and the time you’d like the delivery. You choose ‘as soon as possible’ and click ‘pay’. Just thirty-five minutes later there is a knock on your door. The pizza is here, smelling delicious. You tip the delivery guy and take your pizza to your table to eat.† I believe Peter has described perfectly in this extract from his book, how the Internet has changed shopping habits for millions of people across the world. The disadvantage of this new convenience is that many local high-street shops are disappearing from the high-street and many large businesses are going out of business. This of course has a negative effect on local communities as they are indirect stakeholders connected with many of these local businesses. Local businesses experiencing success provide a good-feel factor and more importantly jobs for local communities. The Labour Force The continued evolution of computing suggests that they will be programmed to provide more convenience for us in the future, and hence society will continue to be deskilled in many different aspects. For example, even with the invention of the simple calculator we have deskilled our mathematical abilities. This deskilling due to the advancements in technology have an impact on the labour force and market, technological change that requires the skills of highly educated workers increases the demand for these workers, whereas innovative change in technology can reduce the demand for workers with skills based on redundant technology. This situation has been repeated throughout history and was a direct effect of the industrial revolution. During the 18th and 19th centuries rapid advancements in technology changed the way people lived and worked, mass production techniques meant the construction of many large factories with large workforces. This did create new forms of employment, but it also deskilled much of society as these new jobs involved repetitive monotonous tasks, hence reducing the demand for skilled workers. The industrial revolution resulted in work being more regimented and less skilled, many consider this a comparison against today’s current information revolution. Computer technology is moving at a pace that is outrunning the ethical issues that surround its use in the workplace. Employers have been seen to establish ethical boundaries that infringe on employee privacy rights and restricting communication abilities. Accessibility of the Internet allows employees to access personal email and talk to family and friends in various different ways. Employers believe this effects the employees focus on tasks at work and has led to many employers observing employee communications during working hours. An ethical dilemma has developed from employers viewing employee’s personal data that has led to courtroom action being taken against employers, employee job termination and many complaints being filed. The innovation of new devices like portable laptops and smartphones has meant that working from almost any location on the globe is possible with the use of a Wi-Fi connection. For many employees this has shifted the traditional eight-hour working day, again another issue of ethics. As computer technology now provides employers with the ability to make requests of employees at any time of the day, does it mean that it is correct ethical thing to do? The modern working day is transforming into a 24 hour experience. Another issue of ethics that arises in the modern workplace is the ownership of company equipment. Problems arise when employees decide to make use of equipment for non-work related purposes, which could possibly include searching for a new job or accepting personal communication. Employers must define clear policies when using company equipment in the workplace and when loaned to an employee, therefore creating an ethical standard when using equipment. Pervasive Computing The terms â€Å"pervasive computing† and â€Å"ubiquitous computing† refer to the embedment of microprocessors in all everyday objects from household appliances, to a pair of glasses, to clothing, and so on so that information can be communicated. This new method of data collection will involve the combination of wireless technologies (such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth), electronics and the Internet. The objective of pervasive computing is to create smart products that will communicate information continuously without interruption, while being connected to the Internet where the collection of data is easily available. Ethical debates have arisen from the purposed development of pervasive computing, privacy issues as personal information could be viewed and the effect this new technology may have on the labour workforce. For example, the replacement of electric meters with smart meters (which record electric usage to the Internet) have resulted in the deskilling of workers who would have manually read and recorded the electric meter figures. Another example of how modern technology has replaced employees with a more convenient method of performing an everyday task, after-all we no longer need to answer the door to the worker who would have inspected your meter, the process is now automated. Privacy stands as the main barrier for the long-term success of pervasive computing. The computer technology is now trying to understand if the current privacy principles that exist in the industry are a true reflection of the ordinary member of society. What are users concerns and preferences about the management of private information and what procedures should be installed that will ensure satisfactory implementation. The main advantage of pervasive computing is that it will improve efficiency from a practical standing. Cloud Computing: Technology of the Future From the knowledge gathered while conducting this research project, I have decided to conclude the report by discussing Cloud Computing, the computer technology I believe will have the most dramatic affect society and culture.

The Role of Internal Audit in UAE Companies

When oil was discovered in 1950s in the UAE, an economic system which was to a great extent dependent on fishing and worsening pearling industry, the state has undergone drastic transmutation owing to the socio-economic alterations taking topographic point. The chief export of the state is of oil and gas. Today, UAE ranks 8th in the list of top 10 premier oil bring forthing states in the universe, bring forthing about 3.1 million barrels per twenty-four hours. It is besides the 3rd largest oil manufacturer in the universe. In the UAE, fluctuations in the oil monetary values have been diminished due to variegation and hence, because of the oil resources of the state, people by and large enjoy high criterions of life. With the development of oil industry in the UAE, a big figure of foreign workers are seeking the occupation chances that exist in the underdeveloped state. ( Dorish, 2010 ) The chief ground that I am interested in this country is because it is extremely related to my calling ends and aims. Researching this subject at this point might turn out to be a large measure frontward in order to accomplish my purpose as the oil industry in UAE is spread outing by springs and bounds. In any concern determination, hazard is an unconditioned consideration. So, attempts are being made in the field of hazard direction patterns in the oil and gas industry, with a focal point on fiscal and regulative hazards. And late, operational hazards have been on the precedence list of companies across the universe. They intend to pull off, proctor and extenuate all the hazards in a co-ordinated manner. Harmonizing to a recent Ernst & A ; Young Report, entree to militias has been identified as the premier concern hazard for the oil and gas sector, others including uncertainness around energy policy, monetary value volatility, human capital shortages and many more.Purposes and AimsAs mentioned above, the oil industry is extremely susceptible to operational hazards. Internal auditing can help the top direction of a company to place the possible hazards related to their operations and the steps that could be taken to command them efficaciously. The purpose of set abouting this resear ch survey is to concentrate on the importance of internal audit in hazard direction in oil companies. As UAE is a portion of the GCC states, it has a joint aim with the other states of GCC to further technological and scientific advancement of the oil industry. Hence, there is a big potency for oil companies in the state. Hence, this survey would concentrate on the oil companies that are positioned in UAE. Besides, the strength of this industry would supply a ambitious undertaking for internal audit of the same. Based on the above purpose, the following aims can therefore be framed: To happen out the significance of internal audit in oil companies. To set up a correlativity between internal audit and hazard direction in oil companies. To happen out the oil companies on which this internal audit can be done. To happen out the betterment in the aim of GCC states by holding internal audit to better their technological and scientific advancement in the oil industry.Overview of reappraisal of the relevant literatureGlobally, many enterprises are being taken by regulative organic structures across the universe to stress the importance of scrutinizing in any concern. To help the directors, hearers and the IT users, the Information Systems Audit and Control Association ( ISACA ) and the IT Governance Institute ( ITGI ) , in 1996, created a set of best patterns framework aa‚ ¬ † the Control Objectives for Information and related Technology ( COBIT ) . It is a set of by and large accepted steps, indexs, procedures and best patterns which help them to optimise the benefits of utilizing information engineering, and to develop appropriate IT administration and control in the company. Besides, to patronize the National Commission on Fraudulent Financial Reporting, a voluntary private se ctor organisation, the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations ( COSO ) , was formed in 1985. Internal scrutinizing in any industry is carried out in assorted legal and cultural environments depending on the organisation. These organisations may differ in footings of intent, size, complexness, and construction.[ 1 ] Any sort of internal auditing is done by the persons within or inside the organisation. However, there might be differences in the manner internal auditing is carried out due to the organisational environment. Despite these differences, it is necessary that these patterns should conform to the IIAaa‚ ¬a„?s International Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing ( Standards ) .[ 2 ]This conformation is indispensable in order to run into the duties of internal hearers and the internal audit activity. The chief intent of these criterions is to sketch the basic rules stand foring the pattern of internal auditing and supply a model for executing and advancing a wide scope of value-added internal auditing. These criterions besides set up the footing for the rating of internal audit public presentation and at the same time are intended to cultivate improved organisational procedures and operations. ( The Insitute of Internal Auditors, 2010 ) A figure of writers have argued on the benefits of transporting out an audit of the house. Kuhn and Figgins ( 1994 ) explained that it helps to find the root cause of jobs bing in concern operations. Efficient use of resources of the company which consequences in cost decrease has besides been argued as a benefit by Drew ( 1993 ) . Preventing concern hazards and developing programs and schemes has been besides stated as a benefit by Donaldson ( 1993 ) . Campbell, Goold and Alexander ( 1995 ) and Simpson ( 1995 ) besides discuss the importance of scrutinizing in strategic decision-making which requires company resource information capablenesss so that assorted alternate actions can be identified and supported. ( Wendy Fenwick, 2009 ) Merely to hold a hint of the importance of internal auditing in oil based companies, there are a figure of formalistic preparation plans designed for a hebdomad to cary it out. These audits have been organized by mistieurope in the yesteryear. They can be of critical aid in understanding the hazards asscoaited with the concern, understanding the procurance map, understanding the auditing undertakings etc. Hence, there surely is a large potency for carry oning internal audit for hazard direction of the oil companies in UAE.MethodologyBasically, this research would be done by both secondary and primary research methods. As oil is a extremely ruling sector in UAE ( the state is the 8th largest maker of oil in the universe )[ 3 ], a batch has been published on the Internet. This would assist in understanding the hazards associated with the same and farther aid in carry oning the internal audit. A few of the forums which have information on the same are Khaleej, The Gulf and Factoidz. The nest research to be done in this class would be primary research. Taking interviews is a time-taking every bit good as expensive matter. Hence, questionnaire distribution in a simple random sample amongst oil companies ( including direction and employees ) , can be done. Further, based on the formed hypothesis, z-test can be used to happen out the proof of the research. Proposed Timetable A Gantt chart is being shown below to show the possible timeline of the undertaking. The chart clearly depicts assorted stages of the undertaking life rhythm and the time/ month during which a peculiar stage of the undertaking will be implemented. It can be viewed in the MS-Project file attached with the physician.